首都师范大学
硕士学位论文
“范式”变迁与1976年后高中英语教学大纲的变革
姓名:戴卓
申请学位级别:硕士
专业:英语语言文学
指导教师:赵桐
20070514
中文摘要
本文旨在揭示应用语言学,语言习得理论的最新发展与中学英语课程、教学的互动关系以明确我国英语教育的理论与实践发展走向。
20世纪70年代以来西方外语教育科学领域发生了一系列的重要转换,从语言理论,学习理论,教学理念,教学内容,教学方法到评价方式等各方面都发生了一系列的变革:语言不再被视为线性的结构,而是实现特定功能的工具;学生学习语言不再被认为是机械的“刺激.反应”的过程,而是学生对语言自我构建;在教学活动当中,从强调教师中心转移到强调学生的主体性;在教学内容上追求真实性,回归生活;从单一的评价模式转换为多元的评价模式;等等。
库恩在他的《科学革命的结构》一书中引入“范式”的概念,指出范式是一个学科内部被广泛接受的模型,式样或是一贯的传统。这一概念在第二语言教学领域也同样适用。作者从语言理论、学习理论和教学方法兰方面来叙述二语教学当中的范式,指出从20世纪70年代至今第二语言教学领域发生了由“结构.行为主义范式”到“功能.建构主义范式”的转变。
而现如今我国正处于教育改革阶段,从1976年我国文化大革命以后到2002年,教育部陆续颁发了各时期的英语课程教学的教学大纲和教学标准。通过对比,我们可以发现中国高中英语教学大纲的变化恰是这种范式转换的最好体现。中国高中英语课程改革自1976至今经历了三个阶段:1978年至1993年,1993年至2002年,2002年至今。纵观1976年至今的6个课程大纲课程标准,作者发现每个大纲和标准的理论基础都深受西方第二语言习得理论的影响。随着各个时期第二语言习得领域语言理论、学习理论和教学方法的转变,高中英语课程大纲的理论基础也相应的随之变化。
2002年,《高中英语课程标准》颁布掀起了第三轮课程改革的序幕。《高中英语课程标准》以全新的面貌呈现在高中英语教师的面前,它带来一系列的新理念新看法,反映了当
前英语教学中的主流思想。然而一线的教师对它的看法又是什么?他们是否认同新标准的理念,是否按照它的要求实施?作者对此在北京地区的高中教师当中进行了问卷调查与研究。结果表明,英语教学的现状相比与从前的确有了很大的改善,但是仍然存在很多问题。通过走访,作者收集到了许多一线教师宝贵的意见和建议,这将对进一步深化课程改革起到积极的作用。
结论:中国英语课程改革反映了第二语言习得领域的范式变化规律;而在新范式理论指导下的新课程标准仍然需要得到进一步的推广;一线教师所反映的关于它是否符合中国教学实际,考试制度与课程大纲相配套等方面的问题也值得引起课程大纲制订者们的进一步思考。关键词:范式;课程改革;大纲;新课程标准
Abstract
Thisthesisaimstorevealtheinteractiverelationshipbetweentherecenttheoriesinlinguistics,secondlanguageacquisitionandtheEnglishcurriculumandteachingpracticeofSelliOYhighschool,80astodaftfythedevelopmentaltendencyofthetheoriesandpracticeofEnglisheducationinChina.
Aseriesofchangeshastakenplaceinsecondlanguagefieldfrom1970s:fromtheoryoflanguage,theoryofleaming
mcthocl,ctc.Thelanguageisteachingconcept,teachingcontent,teachingmethodistoevaluationnolongertreated勰alinearstructure,instead,it
aviewedasalinguisticmeanstoperformdiffvrcntkindsoffunctions;Learning
constructivelanguageisnotthoughttobea“stimulus-response"process,butaprocessbythelearners;Intheteaching
activities,theemphasisshiftsfromteacherstothestudents;As
aretotheteachingcontent,therealtobeEnglishiswdcomed;MultifoldevaluationmethodsencoⅢagedusedinsteadofthe
KulminhisbookThe勘ructureD,Scientific
orRevolutionsproposedaword‘paradigm’asmeaningof‘anacceptedmodelpatternoracoherenttradition’.Thisconceptcanbealso
aFpliedintosecondlanguageteachingfield.Inthisthesis,theauthoranalyzestheparadigmin
teachingthisfieldfromthreeaspectsoflanguagetheories,learningtheedesandmethods,and
sllifl●frompointsoutthatthesecondlanguageteachingfieldisundergoing‘'paradigm
"structuralism-behaviorismparadigm"to“functionalism-constructivismparadigm".
Chinaisnowintheprocessofeducationalreform.From1976aftertheCulturalRevolutionto2002,theStateEducationCommissionissuessixEnglishcurriculaand
see啦thatthestandard.Throughcomparison,itCanbe
reflectchangesofEnglishCurriculaforseniorhighschoolgreatlythe‘'paradigmshiR".Thecurriculumreformssince1976hadundergonethreephases:
1978 1993;1993-2002;2002mlpresent.Takingasweepingvi鲫ofthesixcurriculamadeinthesethreephases,theauthorfoundthatthetheoreticfoundationofeachcurriculumOrstandardisgreatlyinfluencedbythetheofiesofseeondlanguageaequisidon.Withthechangeoftheoriesinlanguage,learningandteaehingmethodsinsecondlanguageacquisitionfieldthecurriculaforEnglishCOI.1rSechangeaeeordin办
Standard.forSeniorHighSchoolwasissuedwhichdroveaIn2002.theEngl妇hCurriculum
newlrOUlldofcurriculumreform.TheEnglishCurriculumStandardfo,Sen如rHighSchoolwas
seriesofpresentedwithabrand-newlooktoEnglishteachersiaSelliorhighschoolforitbringsa
newconceptsandideaswhichreflectthedominatetrendinEnglishteachingfield.Whilewhatall'etheattitudesoftheteacherstowardsthenewstandard?Dotheyagreewiththeneweoneeptsbroughtbythen跚sfandard?Willtheyimplementaccordingto嬲ThustheauthorhasdoneresearchandsurveyamongtheEnglishteachersofhi曲schoolsinBeijingdistrict.TheresultsshowthattheEnglishteachingsituationh鹪beengreatlyimprovedcomparedwithmanyyearsago,buttherea∞stiH蛐eproblems.Throughinterviews,theauthorhascollectsalotofpreciouserificismsandsuggestionswhichwillbenefitfUl吐el"curriculumreform.
Theconclusions撤:1)thecurriculumreformsofEn蛳shco呶inChillareflecttherules
n蒯etm-ieulumstandardof"paradigmshifI'’insecondlanguageacquisitionfield.21Whilethe
whichisguidedbythenC'Wparadigmneedstobepopularizedforful'therst印.3)Theproblemswhiela黜proposedbyteacherssuchas‘'whetheritissuitableforChineserealm∥,"the
toexaminationsystemshouldgotogetherwiththestandard'’shouldbepmdspecialattention
thecurriculumdesigners.by
Keywords:paradigm;curriculumreform;curriculum;nCW"standard.
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工作所取得的成果.除文中已经注明引用的内容外,本论文不含任何其他个人或集体已经发表或撰写过的作品成果。对本文的研究做出重要贡献的个人和集体,
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靴做储戤:赫。f日期:刃钷『月『妒
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学位论文作者签名日期:07年拶弧月
ChapterOneIntroduction
1.1SignificanceoftheResearch
Thesecondlanguageteachingfieldisundergoingtremendouschangesfrom1970stiUpresenLThestructuralismwhichholdslanguageisaling。arstructuregraauallylostitsdominance.Sodoesthebehaviorismwhichisgoiaedbythestrueturalism.Constructivismwhichadvocateslearningthroughstudents’ownconstructionsoflanguagebeginstoemerge.Atthesametime,language'sfunctionsinsteadofstI'UCtUresarousepeople’sattention.Inthisthesis,theconceptproposedbyKuhnisborrowedtorefertothereforminsecondlanguageteachingfield:"paradigm”.InKuhn’streatise(1970)structureofscientificrevolutions,heproposesthisconcept.Accordingtohim,aparadigmm髓ns“allacceptedmodelorpatternoracoherenttradition"。and‘'all‘normal’sciencesgothrougharevolutionarypatternthatk-ginswitha剐屺c嚣sfhlparadigm
ofwithwhichtowork,followedbyaperiodofanomaly(doubt,uncertainty,questioning
parMigm)withpr吖ailingtheory),thencrisis(the
insecuritythatfalloftheexistingalltheprofessionalcome8therewith,andthenfinallyanewparadigm,anovdtheory,isputtogether."Inthesecondlanguageteachingfield,the‘'paradigmshift’’isalsoevident,nomatter
model”.Whilein"teachingconcepts",“teaching
teachingcontent","teachingmodel”or“evaluationinChina,thereformisinprocess.Thereagealtogethersixcurriculaandstandardissuedfrom1976aftertheCultureRevolutionto2002,andthroughcomparisonitiseasytofredthatthereformsofcurriculareflecttheshiftoftheoreticparadigmsinthesecondlanguageteachingfield.Thethesiswillbehelpfulin
brings.understandingthecurrentteachingreformandthen洲conceptsthatit
Onthetheoreticbasisof‘'paradigmshill'’.thesixcurricula(standard)are
theoryontheEn#ishcomparedsoastolookcloselyattheinfluenceoftheteachingreforminChina.Theemphasis
isattachedtothen删standardissuedin2002.n摇n栅standardisfoundtoreflecttheneweonstructivismparadigm,butwhetheritspractitioners,thoseteachersinthefi'ontlineofteaching,fullyunderstandandrealizetheparadigmshiftintheirOWIIteachingbelievesisstillaquestion.WhatistherealsituationofEnglishteachingandlearninginthehi曲schoolsinChina?TheauthorwilldoresearchOnthese嬲pects’andtheconclusionswillbebeneficialfortheteaching1.2ResearchMethods
ComparativeAnalysisandthequestiormairca阳thetwomainresearchmethodsofthisthesis.Sixcurriculaatter1976a坞comparedfromthe嬲pt咖of‘'designingbackground'’,‘'teachingtargets'’。‘'teachingprineifl心’,"teachingmethod'’and"correspondingtextbooks".Thequestionnaireisdesignedtofindoutiftheteachershavedearlyunderstanding幻theIICW"standardandtheiractualdoingsintheirEnglishclassroom.
13Format
Thethesisconsistsof5parts.Chaptel'1isfillintroductiontothesignificanceoftheresearch,theresearchmethodsandtheformatofthewholethesis.Chapter2istheliteraturereviewwhichreviewstheconceptof‘'paradigm'’anditsmanifestationsinthesecondlanguageteachingfieldafter1950tillpresent.Chapter3isthecomparativeanalysisofthesixcurriculaafter1976intermsof“designingbackground","teachingtargets","teachingprinciples’:‘'teachingmethod'’and"correspondingtextbooks".Chapter4isanalysisaboutthequestionnairefortheEnglishteachersinseniorhighselaool,aimingtofindouttheirattitudestowardthenewstandardandtheiractualdoingsintheclassroom.Chapter5istheconclusion,whichpointsout2
thenewparadigmisthetheoreticbasisofthenewstandardandsomesuggestionsfortheEnglishteachersinseniorhighschoolaregiveninorderthattheyGallgetbetterunderstandingofthenewstandard.
ChapterTwo LiteratureRenew
2.1ParadigmandParadigmShift
2.1.1Kuhn’sParadigm
ofScientific
aIn1970,KubninhisbookTheStructureRevolutionsproposesaword‘paradigm’蠲meaningof‘allacceptedmodelOrpatternOr
Structurecoherenttradition.’InthebookTheofScientificRevolutions,Kulmpointsoutthatthescientificrevolutionsaretheprocessofreplacingtheoldparadigmwiththen钾oneinsteadofthelinearaccumulationofthescientificknowledge.Thedevelopmentofscientifichistory啪besummarizedwithinhisfi'amc;
revolutions----n倒vnormal
stage.Ⅵ/henpre-science-----normalscience.Inhisscienco-----anomaly———嘶si争——喀ci训矗ctheory,everyparadigminhistoryhasitsOWIIcomparativelystable
thatparadigmisinthedominantposition,the
tosolvemembersofthescientificcommunity,gIlidedbyaretheparadigmfollowthemlesofittheproblems.Butwhenthere
bytheparadigm,themoreandmoreproblemswhichcallnotbeexplainedandsolvedcommunitythenentersa
timeofparadigmdebate
scienceisOrparadigmshifLandanewmodeltendstoemergeandthenewnormalandcitesestablished.Hisworkisonparadigmshiftinscientificcommunitiesmanyexamplesofupheavalinastronomy,physics,mathematics,etcto¥uppol'thistheory.啦uhn,2.1.2DifferentLevelsofParadigm
ThedefinitionwasnotSO
whichclearevenKuhnhimselfusedthisword‘foratleast21meanings’,included‘basicprinciples’,‘acceptedmodelsinscientificexperiments’,‘c幻qllmon
hisdoctorthesisbeliefs’,etc.Cui(1993)in
thefirstonedividedtheordefinitionof“paradigm"intothreedifferentlevels:isthemere-paradigmmetaphysicsparadigm.Thismeta-paradigmcould
4bea
groupofbelieves,akindofeffectivemetaphysicalthoughtsoranewobservingmethod;thesecondlevelissociologicalparadigm,forexample,ascientific
politicalsystem.TheIhirdlevelistheconstructarea研lhisgeneralacceptance.Itislikeaparadigm.It
classicalamol'ecOllb-YcCtewayof‘'paradigm"whichcouldbeausefultextbookorbook;somepracticaltoolsor
inslnmaents;agrmnmaticalrulesystemoragestaltfigure.InKulm’spostscriptin1969,hewrote,‘‘aparadigmissometMngsharedbythemembersofscientificcommunity,inotherwords,ascientificcommunityconsistsofthememberswhoshareajointparadigm.”
2.1.3TheBasicConnotationofParadigm
ConsultingmanyofKuhn’Sbooks,thebasicconnotationofparadigm
major
asOrcouldbe"theCOl'lLrflOllbeliefofascientificcommunityinsomeg@r[zlinsubjectwhichprescribestheirbasicopinions,theoriesandresearchingmethodssotoformthecommollmodelstosolvethe
problems.Theparadigmisthebasicbeliefsystemleadingthewayofttatcertainareaforfumlgrdevelopment.”(Peng,2006)
2.1.4TheParadigminForeignLanguageTeachingField
Theconcept‘'paradigm'’Callalsobeused
arcnowintheforeignlanguageteachingfieldwhereweexperiencingagreatageof‘'paradigmsbin'’andtheformerparadigmCannothelpcvcnhinderthedevelopmentofthisfield.Wearenowinthestageofwhatiscalled‘crisis’inKulm’sf瑚inle.Woodward(2000)suggests“ifweare110longercontentwimaspcc5晦of0111"dominant
canparadigmforteaching,learningandtraining,thenhow
aboutthetrainingwebestproceed?’’Hegavesomesuggestions
shi屯butmodelforteacherstogetwaysforwardintheprocessofparadigmhedidnotpohnoutclearlywhatthenOW
5paradigmreallywas.MichaelLewis(2002),
PeterSkehan(2002),TerryShortall(2002),DaveWiUis(2002)allcriticizedthePPP(present,practice.production)teaching
paradigmthataparadigm‰difforcntviews.They011adoubledthebasisofthePPPprecisefocusparticularformleads
forsecondtoacquisitionandautomatization,andtheyrespectivelyproposedtheir
‘theparadigmlanguageteaching.Forexample,Lewis’sobserve-hypothesize-experiment’paradigmforlexicalteachingJaneWillis's‘task-basedfi'amework’toreplacePPPmodel;DaveWillisandJane
activities’toWillis’S‘consciouancss-ralsingencouragestudentstothinkaboutthelanguageanddrawtheirOWnconclusion;JimScrivener’s‘ARC’(Authentic,Restricted,Clarification)model.etc.
Accordingtothethreelevelsofthedefinitionbycui,whattheyareaeanngwitharetheconstructparadigms.Whattheauthorwantstoanalyzeinthisthesisistheparadigmwithbroader
ofitinforeignmeaningswhichincludethec.om/nonbelievesandconoreteimpleraentation
languageteachingarea.Theauthor
andwillfocusontheviewoflanguage,learning,teachingmethod,theroleofstudentsteachers,learninggoalsandevaluationmoddtoillustratethe
paradigmshiftintheforeignlanguageteachingfieldfrom1950stilInOW
2.2TheOldParadigm:Strueturalism-BehaviorismParadigm(1950s-1970s)2.2.1Theoryof
FollowingLanguage---StrueturafismRichards&Rodgers(2002),thereareatleastthreedifferentthcoreticalviewsof
naturelanguageandtheoflanguageproficiencyexplicitlyorimplicitlyinformcurrent
approachesandmethods
thestructuralinlanguageteaching.Theonefirstandthemostandthetraditionalofthethreeisview.Thesecond
vi删isthefunctionalviewthirdviewoflanguagecanbccalledtheinteractional
Americanlinguistsproposedthestructural
6linguisticsin1950s,whichlaterbecamea
flourishingacademicdisciplineinlinguisticarerta.AccordingtoStructuralism,languageisasystemofstructurallyrelateddementsforthecodingofmeaning.The
tothesecharacteristics:(a)Elementsinalanguageterm‘structure'referredwe他thoughtofasbeinglinearlyproducedin
couldbeexhaustivelydescribedatanyarule-governed(stractured)way.(b)Languagesamples
structurallevelofdescription(phonetic,phonemic,morphological,etc.)(c)Linguistic
systemswithinsystems----thatis,asbeingpyramidallyle、,elswerethoughtofasstmctured;phonemic
syst戗xtsledtomorphemicsystems,andtheseinturnledtothehig慷Ievdsystemsofphrases,
oflanguagelearningistomasterclauses,andsentences.(Richards&Rodgers,2002)Thetarget
tosay,thephonologicaltheelementsofthissystem,thatisunits(e.昏phonemes),grammatical
units(e’孚clauses,phrases,sentences),grammaticaloperations(e.昏adding,shifting,joining)andlexicalitems(e.gfunctionwordsandstructufewords).Strucnnallinguistshold觚importanttenetthattheprimarymediumoflanguageisoral-speechislanguage.Therefore,itisthespeechthatshouldgainthepriorityinthelanguageteaching.Besides,structuralismis
stronglyconnects!withthelearningtheory—一behaviorism,whichbelieveslearninghappensthroughthe‘S(stimulus)---R(respouses)’process.Thatviewoflanguage
thewaytomasterthelanguageelementsisdrills.
Strueturalismgainedthedominantpositioninthehistoryoflearningdctcrminesthatlinguisticin1950s,andtheinfluenc*onlanguageteachingisprofoundandlasting.Audiolingualmethod,廿nergingin1940sintheUn/tedStates,ldglllyembodiedtheviewofstructura/ismandWaSwidelyusedinAmericaandotherco阻tri龆.UptillnOW,somepointsofviewofstmcturalismarcstillinfluencingU8althoughithaslostitspopularity.
2.2.2TheoryofLearning_—Behaviorism7
Behaviorismisatheoryoflearningwhichhasaprofoundinfluenceonlanguageteaching.Uptotheendofthe1960s,viewsoflanguagelearningWffrOderivedfrombehavionsm.The
constructedafounderofmodernbehaviorismisgenerallyconsideredtobeB.ESkinncr,who
systemofprinciplestoaccountforhumanbehaviorinstrictlyobservableterms.(Skinner,1957,
alsobeganwiththepremisethatlearningWasthe1987,citedinWilliams&Burden,1997)He
resultofenvironmentalratherthangeneticfactors.TheclassicalexamplegivenbyBehaviorismisthatoftheRussianPavlovwhodemonstratedwithdo黟andotherallimalsthataresponse(e.吕
asalivation)generatedbyonestimulus(e.吕food)couldbeproducedbyintroducingsecond
stimulus(c.辱abell)atthes出rnetime.(Williams&Burden,1997)
BehavioristlearningtheorystronglyinfluencedtheStnlcturallinguists.LeonardBloomfield,thefounderofAmericansmactmalism,listed
callthreeprinciplesoflanguageprocess:1)whenoneindividualisstimulated,hisspeechmakeanotherindividualreactionaccordine班y.2)The
thedivisionoflabordivisionoflaborandallhumanactivitiesbasedOnaredependenton
language.3)Thedistance
bridgedupbet、v咖thespeakerandhearer,twoseparatenervoussystems,isbysoundwaves.Heputforwardthewell-knownformula:S—r-….s—R.…Sstandsforpracticalstimulus.‘‘r,’standsforthe
forexternalsubstitutereactionofspeech,‘‘s,’standsforthesubstitutestimulus.and‘‘R”stands
Basedonpracticalreaction.(Liu&Feng,2004)strueturalismandbehaviorism,teachingprocessistreated蹈‘stimulus-rasponse’reaction,andlearningalanguageinvolvesconstantpracticeandrepetition80astofastentheprocessoflanguagehabitformation.Errorsappearedduringthelearningprocessweresaidtobetheresultsofnegativetransferofthestudents’firstlanguage.Inbehavioristaccountsofsecondlanguage
failuretolearning,errorsaleeconsideredundesirable.Theyareevidenceofnon-learning,oftheovercomeproactiveinhibition.Therefore,eTrorsshould
8notbetoleratedforthedanger
ofbecomingthelearners’repertoire.Onceerrel_s铒,peaBtheywouldbecorrectedbytheteacherandthecorrectformsandimitationactivitieswouldbeprovidedtoachieveaccuracyofcertainlanguagestructure.Theroleoftheteacheristodevelopgoodhabitinstudents,whichisdonemainlybypatterndrills,memorizationofdialoguesorchoralrepetitionofstructurepatterns.2.2.3TypesofLearningandTeachingActivitiesUnderlyingtheStructurafism-BehaviorismParadigm
Fromthe1950stothelate1970s,thelanguageteachingworldwasdominatedbythe
WaSdissectedintolistsofAudio-lingualMethod(ALM).Language
basedaroundverbisolatedgrammaticalstructmes(uanaUytenses)andtheseweretaughttolearnersinpiecemeal
fashionusingthePPPapproach.(Terry
practiceandproduction.InShortall.2002).Thestage,teachersfocusPPPapproachis:presentation,presentation
practiceonsomecertainlanguagepoints.toenableandthisstageisfollowedbyacti“fies.Theaimofthepracticeactivitiesis
hasstudentstoproducer硒dlyand
arceasilythematerialwhichbeenpresented.Inthestageofproduction,students
soasexpectedtoUSethelanguagewhichisbeinglearnedfTcelyandflexiblytoconsolidatethelanguagepoints.
hPPPapproach,itisbelievedthatstudents
arewillloamtowhattheyarepresented.Thesyllabusunitsusedandtheorderingofthoseunitsopentheteacherorwriterto
contr01.(White,1988)Teachers
proceedings,andhasacontroltheclassroomactivitiesand"theteacherisinchargeofclearprofessionalrolewhich,ingeneral,itis
day"andrelativelyeasytoorganize,sinceitrequirestheteachertotakethe‘structureofthedowhateverisnecessaryto
als哦thatthatstructureislearned."fSkehan,2002)
TheunderlyingtheoriesofthePPPteaching
9methodarestructuralismandbehaviorism:
Learningisfocusedonruleswhicharethenautomatizedassetofhabits.InthePPPclassroom,thereisaclearcutbetweentheteacherandthestudents.Theteacheristhemasterofknowledgeandtheabsoluteauthority.Whilethestudentsplaytherolesasrelativelypassiverecipientsofinformation,justlikeareceptaclebeingfilledwimknowledge.Astotheevaluationoflearning,sincetheemphasisisonprodud,theachievementtestingisusedforitisstraightforward,objectiveandnon-problematic.
PPPteachingmethoddominatedthelal/guageteachingworldforaverylongtime.Inmyopinion,thereasOllScouldbe:first,theunderlyingtheoriesaretoopowerfulandinfluential;seco咄thismethodindeedhelpedalotwitllthestudents’learningduringtheSecondWorldWar;,thethirdone,asPeterSkehanproposed.‘‘such姐approachhasanumberofadvantages”.Itisveryconvenientfortheteacherstoorganizetheclass,SOitisnotSOeasyfortheteacherstogiveupthismethod.
2.2ACriticismontheStructuralism-BehaviorismParadigm
Inthelateof1950s,thestrueturalism-behaviorismparadigmWasseriouslycriticized.TheattackonbehavioristaccountoflanguagelearningWasgivenimpetusbyAvramNoamChomsky.Inhisreview(1959)ofSkinner’SofVerbalBehavior,heattackedthebehaviorismatthepsychologicalbasisoftheoriesoflanguagelearning.‘‘ItWasarguedbyChomskyandothersthatextrapolatingfromstudiesofanimalbehaviorinlaboratoryconditions,asSkinnerdid,couldshownothingabouthowhumanbeingslearnlanguageinnaturalconditions.Theterms‘stimulus’and‘response’weredismissedasvacuouswhenappliedtolanguagelearning,b嘲useitwasnotpossibletotellwhatconstitutedthestimulusforagiwnspeakerresponse.Theconceptof‘analogy’,whichSkinnerhadevokedtoaccountforthelanguageuser’sabilitytogenerate10