语言学课件 Chapter 3 Lexicon

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Chapter 3 Lexicon

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3.1 What is word

Word: a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether spoken or Written It is hard to define “word” scientifically. 3.1.1 Three senses of “word”: 1) A physically definable unit: Word may be seen as a cluster of sound segments or letters between tow pauses or blanks. Phonological and orthographic(书写上) Problem: When liaison and contracted forms occur

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2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term: boy, boys (one word or two words?) check, checks, checked, checking (one word or four words?) Lexeme(词位): the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts Write---write, writes, wrote, writing, written Fat---fat, fatter, fattest

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3) A grammatical unit:

sentence clause phrase word morpheme

Each of these is called a RANK. All the ranks constitute a hierarchical scale. Problem: free morphemes or words: black, bird, air,

craft, town, hall

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3.1.2 Identification of words1) Stability: the constituent parts of a complex word cannot be rearranged But it is all right for us to rearrange the parts or constituents in a sentence to a certain degree. The chairman looked at the audience. The audience looked at the chairman. 2) Relative uninterruptibility: New elements cannot be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word.

chairman﹡manchair

disappointment

dis + appoint + ment

Paul, (Jane) and Rebecca are my classmates.

(Even) Paul (even) didn’t (even) love (even) Jane (even).

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3) A minimum free form: Leonard Bloomfield(1933): Sentence: the maximum free form Word: the minimum free form the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself --Is Jane coming tonight? --Possibly. Hi, Darling, Wonderful, Yeah

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3.1.3 Classification of words1) Variable vs. invariable words: Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant

follow, follows, following, followed; mat, mats Invariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.

2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words: Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns Lexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

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The lexical words carry the main content of a language (content words) and the grammatical words serve to link the different parts of a sentence together (function words). 3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words: Grammatical---lexical words closed-class---open-class words Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle in

finite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs Note: The distinction is not quite as clear-cut as it seems. Prepositions: regarding, throughout, out of, according to, Auxiliary verbs:

with regard to, in spite of, be means of

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4) Word class: It is close to the notion of Parts of Speech in traditional grammar. Nine word classes are established: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, article.

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Some new categories: a. Particles(助词): the infinite marker(to), the negative marker(not), the subordinate units in phrasal verbs (get by, do up, look back) b. Auxiliaries(助动词): used to be regarded as verbs, linguists tend to define them as a separate word class rather than verbs. NEGATION: I can t come. INVERSION: Is he coming? CODE: I ll come and so will Bill. EMPHASIS: He has come.

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c. Pro-form(替代形式): refers to the closed sets of items which can be used to substitute for a nominal group (名词词组)or a single noun. Pro-adjective: Your pen is red. So is mine. Pro-verb: He knows English better than he did. Pro-adverb: He hopes he ll win and I hope so too. Pro-locative(代处所词): Jame s hiding there, behind the door.

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d. Determiners(限定词): those words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has, e.g. the, a(n), some, all Quirk, et al. (1985: 253): three subclasses of determiners: Predeterminers: all, both, half, double, twice, three

times, one-third, one-fifth Central determiners: a, an, the, this, that, these, those, every, each, some, any, no, either, neither, my, our, your, his, her, its, their

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Postdeterminers: cardinal numerals(基数词), ordinal numerals(序数词), general ordinals(一般顺序词): next, last, past, (an)other, additional and other quantifiers like many, a few, several, much, little, a lot of, plenty

of, a great deal of, a great number of

When different sub-classes of determiners occur together, they follow the order of predeterminers + central determiners + postdeterminers.

﹡their all trouble ﹡five the all boys

all their trouble all the five boys

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Within each subclass, the members are usually exclusive of each other.

*the this boy *all both girls

But ordinal numerals and general ordinals may occur before cardinal numerals.

the first two days another three weeks

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3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme(语素) & morphology(形态学) Chairman: chair, man Townhall: town, hall Boys: boy, -s Checking: check, -ing Disappointment: dis-, appoint, -ment The components of a word are known as morphemes. They themselves cannot be further analyzed.

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Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and th

e rules by which words are formed. Purify=pur(e)+-ify a morphological rule: a new form of verb can be created by adding –ify to an adjective. amplify, simplify, electrify, falsify