Reasoning,StatingandUnderstandingWithImage——s
that
can
beexposedthantodonothing,betterthoughtgoes
to
haveanyaccountofhowmetaphor
works(or
that
our
on)than
tohavenone.Providedalwaysthatwedonotsuppose
accountreallytellsUSwhathappens—provided,thatis,we,donotmistakeour
our
theoriesfor
skills,or
our
descriptiveapparatusforwhatitdescribes.
as
AnotherAlex
use
ofmetaphorbegantoemergeinthe1940sand1950s,aspeoplesuchinventor
Osborn(the
of
of‘brainstorming’)andW.J.J.Gordon
approach"known
andGeorgePrince(the
inventors
the’creativity
as‘Sb7nectics’)took
another,very
business—like,angle.Theseearly‘practicalcreativity’pioneerswantedtohelppeopleandorganizations
to
bemore
imaginative.Analogy
just
as
andmetaphorbegantobeused
as
as
commerciallyvaluabletools,notpsychologicalprocesses
literarydevices,or
explanationsformysterious
Inthe1960sand1970s,morefactorsemerged:
Onthepopularculturesidecame
theexplosionofpsychedelic,guru—hunting,
encounter—groupy,youthcultures.Theseintroducedverylargenumbersofpeopleto‘farout’experiencesthatseemedthought
a
longwayfromtheoldmodels,whichhasoften
seen
just
as
somekindofinternalizedconversation.
onthescientificside,therapiddevelopment,ataboutthesametime,ofcomputersandoftechniquescapableofrecordingneuralactivity,madeitpossibleto‘thinkaboutthinking’inwaysthathasenquiry
to
never
been
possiblebefore.Aloosepatchworkof
areas
of
dowith‘thinking’began
to
cometogetherundertheumbrella—label:‘Cognitiveintelligence,cognitive
psychology,linguistics,
Sc—ience’These‘include
artificial
philosophy,neuro—science,psychiatricresearch,ideasfromcybernetics,etc.
Onthephilosophicalside,therewasthegrowingawarenessthatexplaintheworldaround
US
are
our
attemptsto
often
SO
incompleteandapproximatethatthereisroom
formanydifferenttheories
or
explanations.Evenapparentlycontradictoryexplanations
as
mayeachhaveusefulvalidityintheirowncontext—atheoryisparable
or
often
as
much
a
story,
as
metaphor
as
it
is‘objective
truth’.Thisideabecame
a
known
‘post—modernism’(to
contrastitwith‘modernism’一thebeliefin
unified,rational,